Contents for Module 7 Social Cognitive Theory & Motivation

Contents for Module 7 Social Cognitive Theory & Motivation

Objectives:

The purposes of Module Seven:

• Explore and reflect on material and ideas related to Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Learning Theory and Motivation by reading the content of the module, articles, websites and sources you may locate.
• Study and develop an understanding of the major ideas of Social Cognitive Theory and Motivation as they relate to learning.
• Understand instructional implications of the Social Cognitive Theory and theories and ideas related to academic motivation.
• Consider applications of some of the ideas presented in your readings.

Overview:  Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)

Albert Bandura began his professional life as a Behaviorist and then through a process of evolution (at various stages referred to as: neo-behaviorist, observational learning theorist, learning theorist, social learning theorist), began in the 1980’s referring to his theory as Social Cognitive Theory.

Albert Bandurahttp://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/bandura.html (Links to an external site.)

Social Learning Theory

In 1977, Bandura wrote a book, Social Learning Theory, explaining his theoretical position at the time.  The emphasis of Social Learning Theory was on observing and modeling behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.  Bandura (1977) wrote, "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasion coded information serves as a guide for action.” (p. 22)

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York: General Learning Press.

Social Cognitive Theory of Learninghttp://pdfcast.org/pdf/social-cognitive-theory-of-learning (Links to an external site.)

Social cognitive theory evolved from original studies in observational learning and seeks to explain learning in the naturalistic setting. Bandura explores and interprets human behaviors within a framework of triadic reciprocity or reciprocal determinismamong behaviors, environmental variables, and personal factors.  Triadic Reciprocity or Reciprocal Determinism:  From the SCT perspective, human behavior is seen as a triadic, dynamic, and reciprocal interaction of personal factors, behavior, and the environment.
Reciprocal Determinism - Reciprocal Interactions - (Triadic reciprocality)
Interaction among:

• Environment
• Behavior
• Personal Factors

“In the social cognitive view people are neither driven by inner forces nor automatically shaped and controlled by external stimuli.  Rather, human functioning is explained in terms of a model of triadic reciprocality in which behavior, cognitive and other personal factors, and environmental events all operate as interacting determinants of each other” (Bandura, 1986, p. 18).
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action:  A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

According to this theory, an individual's behavior is uniquely determined by each of these three factors.  However, the three factors do not hold equal weight in stimulation or causation.  While the SCT maintains the behaviorist view that response consequences mediate behavior, it postulates that behavior is regulated fundamentally through cognitive processes.

According to SCT the social milieu provides numerousopportunities for individuals to acquire complex skills and abilities through the observation of modeled behaviors and the behavioral consequences.

Social Cognitive Theory assumptions

• The learning process requires both the cognitive processing and decision making skills of the learner.
• Learning is a three-way interlocking relationship between the environment, personal factors, and behavior.
• Learning results in the acquisition of verbal and visual codes of behavior that may or may not later be performed.

Social Cognitive Theoryhttp://www.education.com/reference/article/social-cognitive-theory/ (Links to an external site.)

Overview of Social Cognitive Theory and of Self-Efficacy

Social Cognitive Theory perspective of learning
Learning is the acquisition of the internal symbolic representations in the form of verbal or visual codes which could serve as guidelines for future behavior.
The components of learning are

• Behavioral modeling
• Consequences of the modeled behavior
• The learner’s internal process
• Self Efficacy

Types of Reinforcement acknowledged by Social Cognitive Theory

• Direct Reinforcement
• Vicarious Reinforcement
• Self-Reinforcement

Self-Efficacy

• The sense that one can execute successfully a behavior required to produce a particular behavior.
• “Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations” (Bandura, 1995, p. 2 - Self-Efficacy in Changing Societies)
• Self-efficacy determines how we think, feel, and behave.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215.
http://teachlearn.caltech.edu/documents/82-bandura_self-efficacy.pdf (Links to an external site.)

In the above article, Bandura list the sources of self-efficacy information as

Performance AccomplishmentsVicarious ExperienceVerbal PersuasionEmotional Arousal

In his more current writing, Bandura refers to the sources of efficacy beliefs or four main forms of influence as:

• Mastery experiences
• Vicarious experiences
• Social persuasion
• Physiological and emotional states

Bandura, A. (1995). Exercise of personal and collective self-efficacy in changing societies, In A. Bandura (ed.). Self-efficacy in changing societies (pp. 1-45) New York: Cambridge University Press

Modeling

According to SCT (Social Cognitive Theory) models are an essential component of learning in the naturalistic setting.  Models:

• serve as a cue for similar behavior in others
• strengthen or weaken the learner’s existing restraints against the performance of particular behaviors
• demonstrate new patterns of behavior.

Types of modeling stimuli

• Live model
• Symbolic model
• Verbal descriptions or instructions

The models in one’s environment are extremely important as sources of information, for acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors, etc.  Models are important sources of information for gauging self-efficacy. In the academic setting, modeling is the demonstrating and describing of component parts of a skill to a novice (remember, adults are often novices).  Bandura (1997) projected that positive instances of modeling are valuable because they  increase expectations that a new skill can be mastered,  provide motivational incentives, and supply a great deal of information about how a skill is performed.

Expert Models:  Whereas someone seen as an expert may be an effective model, the learner must be able to identify with the model.  Therefore, someone who is far removed from the learner in terms of abilities may be seen as interesting, but will not likely provide the same degree of learning as someone with whom the learner can identify.

Peer Models:  Observing similar peer models performing a task well can provide a believable source of information while raising the observers’ self-efficacy. 

Coping Models: Coping models are ones who initially demonstrate some tentativeness and deficiencies, but who gradually improve their performance and gain confidence in their capabilities.  Coping models illustrate how determined effort and positive self-thoughts overcome difficulties. 

Teacher Modeling: The same steps are effective for teaching a complex physical skill or procedure and for teaching a cognitive skill.  The challenge is that the cognitive skill cannot be “seen.”  Therefore, when teaching a cognitive skill, the teacher/facilitator must use a method such as a “think aloud” protocol.  That is, the teacher must verbally explain what can’t be seen.  One of the most effective ways for a teacher to model a complex procedure (physical or cognitive) is to do so through the following steps: 

1. Create a rationale for the new learning skill.  Explain to students why acquisition of the skill is important.  Provide examples of how, when, and where the skill will be used (establish outcome expectancies).
2. Model the procedure in its entirety while the students observe.  For example, a dance teacher does an entire dance without interruption.
3. Model component parts of the skill/task.  If the skill or task can be broken into smaller parts (each action in a particular dance step) model each small component of the skill or task.
4. Allow students to practice each small component of the skill/task under teacher guidance. 
5. As the smallest components parts become a more complex procedure, have the students practice the entire procedure under teacher guidance.
6. Have the students engage in self-directed performance of the task.  (See Reciprocal Teaching in Module 7.)

Bandura A. (1997). Self-efficacy:  The exercise of control.  New York: Freeman

The Modeling Process

Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. For modeling to be effective, certain cognitive processes must occur. 

• Attention:
  In order to learn, the learner needs to be paying attention. Anything that detracts attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. Remember, not all models are effective for all learners.  If the learner identifies with the model (see Modeling above) the learner is more likely to dedicate attention to the situation.

• Retention:
  The ability and motivation to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

• Reproduction:
  If the learner has paid attention to the model and retained the information, the learner may reproduce the behavior. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.

• Motivation:
  Motivation play a primary role throughout the processes above. 

Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication - Bandura, A. (2001)
http://cogweb.ucla.edu/crp/Media/Bandura_01.pdf
 (Links to an external site.)In the socially mediated pathway, media influences link participants to social networks and community settings that provide natural incentives and continued personalized guidance, for desired change.

Human agency in social cognitive theory. Full Text Available  Bandura, Albert; American Psychologist, Vol 44(9), Sep, 1989. pp. 1175-1184. [Journal Article]
The present article examines the nature and function of human agency within the conceptual model of triadic reciprocal causation.
(UCF Library Online Journals) 

The above article listed in APA editorial style

Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44(9), 117-1184.

Beliefs About Intelligence and Knowledge

Why do beliefs about intelligence influence learning success? A social cognitive neuroscience model
http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/1/2/75.full.pdf+html
 (Links to an external site.)Students’ beliefs and goals can powerfully influence their learning success. Those who believe intelligence is a fixed entity (entity theorists) tend to emphasize ’performance goals,’ leaving them vulnerable to negative feedback and likely to disengage from challenging learning opportunities. In contrast, students who believe intelligence is malleable (incremental theorists) tend to emphasize ’learning goals’ and rebound better from occasional failures.

Check up Quiz:  See Supplemental Materials “Bandura:  Short Answer Quiz”

Overview: Motivation:

Motivation is the process whereby goal directed activity is instigated and sustained.

• Process not product

• Involves goals

• Requires activity  (mental and/or physical)

• Instigated and sustained

Index	Relation to Motivation
Choice of Tasks	Selection of a task under free-choice conditions indicates motivation to perform the task
Effort	High effort—especially on difficulty material—is indicative of motivation
Persistence	Working for a longer time—especially when one encounters obstacles—is associated with higher motivation
Achievement	Choice, effort, and persistence raise task achievement

Motivation and Attribution Theory

Attribution Theory 

Attribution theory (Weiner, 1980, 1992) is one of the most influential contemporary theories with implications for academic motivation. It incorporates behavior modification in the sense that it emphasizes the idea that learners are strongly motivated by the pleasant outcome of being able to feel good about themselves. It incorporates cognitive theory and self-efficacy theory in the sense that it emphasizes that learners' current self-perceptions will strongly influence the ways in which they will interpret the success or failure of their current efforts and hence their future tendency to perform these same behaviors.

Attribution Theory (Bernard Weiner)

According to attribution theory, the explanations that people tend to make to explain success or failure can be analyzed in terms of three sets of characteristics:

• First, the cause of the success or failure may be internal or external. That is, we may succeed or fail because of factors that we believe have their origin within us or because of factors that originate in our environment.
• Second, the cause of the success or failure may be either stable or unstable. If the we believe cause is stable, then the outcome is likely to be the same if we perform the same behavior on another occasion. If it is unstable, the outcome is likely to be different on another occasion.
• Third, the cause of the success or failure may be either controllable or uncontrollable. A controllable factor is one which we believe we ourselves can alter if we wish to do so. An uncontrollable factor is one that we do not believe we can easily alter.
• Note that this factor is distinct from the previous two categories. An internal factor can be controllable (we can control our effort by trying harder) or uncontrollable (most people cannot easily change their basic intellectual ability or change from being an introvert to being an extrovert). Likewise, an external factor can be controllable (a person failing a difficult course could succeed by taking an easier course) or uncontrollable (if calculus is difficult because it is abstract, it will still be abstract no matter what we do).

 An important assumption of attribution theory is that people will interpret their environment in such a way as to maintain their self-image. That is, in most cases, they will attribute their successes or failures to factors that will enable them to feel as good as possible about themselves. In general, this means that when learners succeed at an academic task, they are likely to want to attribute this success to their own efforts or abilities; but when they fail, they will want to attribute their failure to factors over which they have no control, such as bad teaching or bad luck. However, for some learners, maintaining their self-image may mean maintaining a negative self-image. For example, if a student has a low self-concept and a belief that she/he is unable to do well in a subject, that student may attribute success to luck or some uncontrollable variable that allows her/him to maintain the self-image of  not being capable. In other words, understanding how individual students think in terms of attributions and causality is not as straight forward as one might think.

The basic principle of attribution theory as it applies to motivation is that a person's own perceptions or attributions for success or failure determine the amount of effort the person will expend on that activity in the future.

There are four factors related to attribution theory that influence motivation in education: ability, task difficulty, effort, and luck. In terms of the characteristics discussed previously, these four factors can be analyzed in the following way:

• Ability is a relatively internal and stable factor over which the learner does not exercise much direct control.
• Task difficulty is an external and stable factor that is largely beyond the learner's control.
• Effort is an internal and unstable factor over which the learner can exercise a great deal of control.
• Luck is an external and unstable factor over which the learner exercises very little control. 

Note that it is the learner's perception that determines how attributions will influence future effort. A learner may believe that he is a "lucky person" - and for him luck would be an internal and stable characteristic over which he exercises little control. In other words, for this person "luck" is really what the preceding list calls an "ability" or personality characteristic. Likewise, a person may believe that she expended a great deal of effort, when in fact she did not, or that an objectively easy task was difficult. The basic principle of attribution theory as it applies to motivation is that a person's own perceptions or attributions for success or failure determine the amount of effort the person will expend on that activity in the future.

Students will be most persistent at academic tasks under the following circumstances:

1. if they attribute their academic successes to either:
1. internal, unstable, factors over which they have control (e.g., effort) or
2. internal, stable, factors over which they have little control but which may sometimes be disrupted by other factors (e.g., ability disrupted by occasional bad luck);
   and
2. if they attribute their failures to internal, unstable factors over which they have control (e.g., effort).

Weiner's Attribution Theory.webm

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MIp8YaDAL78 (Links to an external site.)

 Attribution Theory and Teaching:  Guidelines for teachers

The following guidelines have been found to assist teachers in applying the constructs of attribution theory to motivate students.

Guidelines:

1. If we want students to persist at academic tasks, we should help them establish a sincere belief that they are competent and that occasional imperfections or failures are the result of some other factor (such as bad luck or a lack of sufficient effort) that need not be present on future occasions. (That is, ability attributions for success are likely to be beneficial, with the exception cited in the next guideline.)
2. It is not beneficial for students to attribute their successes entirely to ability. If they think they already have all the ability they need, they may feel that additional effort is superfluous. The ideal attribution for success is, "I succeeded because I am a competent person and worked hard."
3. When students fail, they are most likely to persist and eventually succeed if they attribute their failure to a lack of appropriate effort. Therefore, it is extremely important that when students perceive themselves as unsuccessful teachers help them develop the conviction that they can still succeed if they give it their best shot. (Note that it is important to define effort appropriately, as in guideline 5.)
4. It is extremely hazardous to motivational health for students to fail repeatedly after making a serious effort at academic tasks. When this happens, they will either (a) stop believing they are competent, or (b) stop attributing their failure to lack of effort. Both of these outcomes are likely to reduce persistence at the academic tasks. It is important, therefore, to arrange tasks so that students who work hard are able to perceive themselves as successful.
5. It is important to define effort correctly and for the learners to internalize an accurate concept of effort. In practical terms effort is most usefully defined as devoting effective academic learning time to the task. Just trying harder or spending more time doing ineffective activities does not constitute effort. It is extremely important to make this distinction. If we use another definition of effort, when we tell children that their failures are a result of a lack of effort, we run the risk of leading them to believe that they have an internal, stable characteristic called laziness, over which they have no control. This will reduce motivation.
1. Another way to say this is that it is possible and desirable for students to believe that even though they have "worked hard," they have not yet put forth their best effort. If we can show students ways to improve their efforts - and there are almost always ways to channel their energies more effectively - then we can enable them to have an accurate perception that increased effort is likely to pay off.
6. Excessively competitive grading and evaluation systems are likely to impair the learning of many students. Competition will encourage students to persist only to the extent that they believe additional effort will enable them to succeed within the competitive atmosphere. In many instances, success in competition is completely beyond the learner's control - no matter how hard a learner works, another more competent and equally energetic competitor is likely to win.
7. It is useful to evaluate students at least partly (but not exclusively) on the basis of their effort. This does not mean that the weakest students in a class should receive the highest grades simply because they may spend more time trying to master the subject matter. Ideally, course assignments should be arranged so that diligent work actually leads to academic success, and the teacher's evaluation should help students see this connection.
8. In general, it is best for students to believe that it is their own behavior rather than external circumstances that leads to success or failure. Researchers refer to this as having an internal locus of control. While it is good for students to have a realistic understanding of what's happening around them, research shows that the most successful students have a tendency tooverestimate the degree to which their own behavior leads to success or failure (Lefcourt, 1976).
9. When students have a conviction that they lack ability, it is necessary to take steps to circumvent or overcome this conviction. Such students are likely to repudiate successes. For example, when they do well, they are likely to have a sincere conviction that they were "just lucky." It is difficult to alter this conviction. Changing this conviction is tantamount to altering the learner's self-concept, and this cannot be accomplished in a short time. There are many approaches available to teachers, including the following:When students reject the value of effort, it is important to change their perception. This can be done by clarifying the meaning of effort and by seeing to it that effort does actually pay off. In addition, if students attribute their success to luck, it may be best to refrain from arguing with their attributions, while simply praising or otherwise reinforcing them for their effective use of academic learning time.
   • Find areas in which the learner perceives herself or himself as successful, and show connections between that area and the topic currently under consideration.
   • Use research based approaches to enhance the learner's self-concept.
   • Focus heavily on effort as the factor critical to success.
     While the teacher's long-range goal may be to enhance the learner's self-concept, the immediate goal is to promote motivation with regard to the subject matter at hand.

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Motivation

Motivation is a mental process that activates, directs, and maintains behavior.  There are at least 3 aspects of a learner’s motivation:

• The direction or goal of the motivation.
• The relative strength of the motivation.
• The duration of the motivation.

Teachers can gain valuable insights by observing four types of learner behaviors or behavioral characteristics:

1. the choices they make
2. the effort they invest in achieving a goal
3. the frequency with which they take certain actions
4. the persistence with which they pursue an objective

People from different cultural backgrounds may appear motivated to achieve different goals.  However, it is theorized that the different goals just reflect different ways of satisfying the same core set of basic human needs that are experienced by all people in all cultures.  Families, communities, ethnic groups, and cultures may value different things, therefore, individuals from different groups may be expected to set different goals to acquire status and esteem within their family, community, ethnic group, and/or culture.

Learning is dependent on a student’s motivation. As teachers/facilitators, one of the most essential responsibilities is to stimulate the students’ intention to learn.  A cornerstone of teaching effectiveness is the extent to which a teacher/facilitator can create conditions that promote student motivation.

Two basic types of motivation:  Intrinsic & Extrinsic

Intrinsic motivation refers to behaviors that are carried out for their own sake.  Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual - motivation that is driven by interest, enjoyment, satisfaction.
Extrinsic motivation refers to behaviors that are performed to achieve some externally prized consequence. 

Traditional wisdom has been that promoting intrinsic motivation should be sufficient for high levels of task engagement, persistence, and satisfaction.  Unfortunately, the relationship between intrinsic motivation and academic success is not as clear-cut as it might seem.  Decci and Ryan (1987) have proposed that a more fundamental distinction can be made between actions that are eitherself-determined or controlling.  Self-determined actions include behaviors that individuals choose to engage in for intrinsic reasons (interest, satisfaction, joy, etc.).  Controlling actions refer to behaviors that individual engage in because of internal or external pressure to conform to a set standard or to meet a particular expectation.  For example, one student may choose to complete an assignment because she/he find joy and satisfaction in the work and believes that the information will be valuable to a future job that she/he is hoping to get.  Another student may complete the work to avoid getting a failing grade which could result in his/her not receiving future financial aid.  Still another student may complete the assignment because she/he believes that the information will be valuable to a future job that she/he is hoping to get. Although all three students technically “choose” to complete the assignment, the foundations of the choices were very different.

See:  (UCF Online Journals)
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R.M. (1987 December). The support of autonomy and the control of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1024-1037. 

Deci, E.L., Vallerand, R.J., Pelletier, L.G., & Ryan, R.M. (1991 Summer/Fall). Motivation and Education: The Self-Determination Perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26 (3/4), 325-346.

Beliefs About Intelligence and Knowledge - additional sources

Why do beliefs about intelligence influence learning success? A social cognitive neuroscience model
http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/1/2/75.full.pdf+html
 (Links to an external site.)Students’ beliefs and goals can powerfully influence their learning success. Those who believe intelligence is a fixed entity (entity theorists) tend to emphasize ’performance goals,’ leaving them vulnerable to negative feedback and likely to disengage from challenging learning opportunities. In contrast, students who believe intelligence is malleable (incremental theorists) tend to emphasize ’learning goals’ and rebound better from occasional failures.

Personal epistemology is the study of how the individual develops a conception of knowledge and how that individual uses that knowledge to understand the world.
Are students' beliefs about knowledge and learning associated with their reported use of learning strategies? (Links to an external site.)Full Text Available By: Dahl, Tove I.; Bals, Margrethe; Turi, Anne Lene. British Journal of Educational Psychology, Jun2005, Vol. 75 Issue 2, p257-273, 17p; DOI: 10.1348/000709905X25049; (AN 17535713)
(Available from UCF online journals)

Personality, approaches to learning and achievement. (Links to an external site.)Detail Only Available By: Swanberg, Anne Berit; Martinsen, Øyvind Lund.Educational Psychology, Jan2010, Vol. 30 Issue 1, p75-88, 14p; DOI: 10.1080/01443410903410474; (AN 46722384)
(Available from UCF online journals) 

Changes in achievement goals and competence perceptions across the college semester. Detail Only Available By: Jagacinski, Carolyn M.; Kumar, Shamala; Boe, Jan L.; Lam, Holly; Miller, Steven A.. Motivation & Emotion, Jun2010, Vol. 34 Issue 2, p191-204, 14p, 4 Charts; DOI: 10.1007/s11031-010-9165-x; (AN 51624450)
(Available from UCF online journals)
An investigation of the relationship between changes in perceptions of competence and changes in achievement goals across a college semester for students enrolled in an introductory psychology course. Two types of competence perceptions were examined: self-efficacy for learning and normative perceived ability. Changes in normative perceived ability were predicted to relate to changes in performance goals, but not mastery goals. Because mastery goals rely on self-referent standards to evaluate ability, we predicted changes in self-efficacy for learning would relate to changes in mastery goals. We also expected changes in self-efficacy for learning to relate to changes in performance goals because learning can lead to the demonstration of superior competence. The predictions were supported for mastery and performance-approach goals, but not for performance-avoidance goals.

Implications for Instruction

Reflect on the implications for improving self-efficacy:

1. Increase students' awareness of the self-efficacy concept. Ask yourself: What are some ways that instructional design and delivery can increase students' awareness of the concept of self-efficacy?
2. Use intermediate-level and expert modeling. Ask yourself: What are some effective and meaningful ways to incorporate modeling into the design and delivery of instruction? 
3. Provide feedback and encourage students to self-evaluate. Ask yourself: How can instructional design and delivery encourage students to engage in self-evaluation?
4. Build self-efficacy rather than reduce expectations. Ask yourself: What are some ways that instructional design and delivery can engage students in adequately challenging tasks and thereby build self-efficacy?
5. Encourage self-regulation. Ask yourself: What are some ways that instructional design and delivery can encourage learners to become self-regulated?

Reflect on the implications for improving student attributions

1. Discuss the effects of attributions with students. Provide an in depth and specific example of an appropriate way to discuss, with adult learners, the role that attributions play in the learning process.
2. Help students focus on controllable causes. Provide an in depth and specific example of how adult learners can be encouraged to focus on controllable factors in the learning process. 
3. Help students understand their emotional reactions to success and failure. Provide an in depth and specific example of how adult learners can be assisted in understanding their emotional reactions and attributions to success and failure outcomes. 
4. Consider alternative causes of success and failure. Provide an in depth and specific example of how adult learners can be encouraged to consider alternative causes (specifically considering appropriate strategies) of success and failure. 
5. Be mindful of inadvertent low-ability cues. Provide an in depth and specific example of how teachers of adult learners can avoid communicating low-ability cues.

Reflect on the implications for fostering student autonomy

1. Let students make meaningful choices. Ask yourself: What are some ways that instructional design and delivery can provide choices for learners? 
2. Scrutinize teacher and student expectations. Ask yourself: What can an educator do in terms of developing and delivering instruction to clarify expectations and communicate high expectations to adult students?
3. Minimize extrinsic rewards. Ask yourself: How can an educator minimize the use of extrinsic rewards and how can extrinsic rewards when employed be used appropriately?
4. Incorporate criterion-referenced evaluation. Ask yourself: What is a specific example of criterion-referenced evaluation?
5. Provide intrinsically motivating reasons for performing a task. Ask yourself: How can design and delivery of instruction provide, to the adult learner, intrinsically motivating reasons for performing a task?